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ESTUDIO #13

CURSO DE LECTURA COMPRENSIVA DE TEXTOS CIENTIFICOS ESCRITOS EN INGLÉS

Escuela de Posgrado

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO - FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS FORESTALES

Los METODOS Esta segunda sección es la más corta de un informe técnico de investigación. Se la denomina indistintamente METODOS, PROCEDIMIENTOS ó MATERIALES y METODOS. En ella se encuentran las respuestas a todas las preguntas esenciales acerca de cómo se llevó a cabo el estudio: ¿dónde, cómo se obtuvieron los datos? o ¿qué significan exactamente los datos incluidos? La descripción clara y concisa del procedimiento se realiza siguiendo aproximadamente la siguiente estructura: 1. Los sujetos usados (plantas, animales, personas, etc) con sus características físicas y biológicas, su manipulación y cuidado previos al experimento como así también, en caso de ser importante, se incluyen la ubicación geográfica de dónde se llevó a cabo el estudio. 2. Si es un estudio de campo, se debe incluir una descripción del sitio de estudio también con sus detalles físicos y biológicos. 3. El diseño experimental o del muestreo, o sea, los controles, tratamientos, la(s) variable(s) considerada(s), número de muestras, réplicas, etc. 4. El/los procedimiento(s) empleados para la recolección de las muestras; cada uno de ellos ocupará un párrafo y dará información detallada en cuanto a cantidades, duración, etc. 5. Qué procedimientos estadísticos fueron usados para el análisis de los datos. Cada experimento o procedimiento incluido en el desarrollo de la investigación puede estar indicado por un subtìtulo o unidad. En general se dan en esta sección detalles cuantitativos suficientes para permitir la reproducción de los mismos por parte de otros científicos. En esta sección se encuentran fundamentalmente expresiones en voz pasiva, sobre todo en tercera persona y en el tiempo pasado. Las frases lexicales más usadas en esta sección incluyen: A/an (un, una)

The (el, la, los, las)

A series of (una serie de)

Two series of (dos series de)

approach/es (método/s) effect/s (efecto/s) experiment/s (experimento/s) model/s (modelo/s) pattern/s (patrón/ones) program/s (programa/s) study/ies (estudio/s) solution/s (soluciòn/es) factor/s (factor/es) treatment/s (tratamiento/s) analysis/es (análisis) investigation/s

consist/s of (consiste/n de) determine/s (determina/n) contain/s (contiene/n) investigate/s (investiga/n) test/s (evalúa/n) influence/s (influye/n) require/s (exige/n) gave (dio/dieron)

(investigación/es) test/s (prueba/s)

trials/s (ensayo/s) developed (desarrollado/s) conducted (conducido/s) (es/son) carried out (llevado/s a cabo) was/were simulated (simulado/s) (fue/fueron) presented (presentado/s) has/have been executed (ejecutado/s) (ha/han sido) used (usado/s) represented (representado/s) tested (evaluado/s) studied (estudiado/s) applied (aplicado/s) analyzed (analizado/s) examined (examinado/s) formulated (formulado/s) obtained (obtenido/s) introduced (introducido/s) included (incluido/s) employed (empleado/s) generated (generado/s) observed (observado/s) is/are

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described (descripto/s) calculated (calculado/s) evaluated (evaluado/s) scaled (graduado/s) classified (clasificado/s) increased (aumentado/s) undertaken (realizado/s) discussed (discutido/s)

For this purpose we

analized (analizamos)

(para este fìn)

studied (estudiamos) systematized (sistematizamos) investigated (investigamos)

In order to (para) To (para)

investigate this (investigar esto) determine (determinar) support (apoyar) identify (identificar)

Los siguientes son muestras de secciones “Métodos” de distintos artículos. Léalos y proponga su traducción.

… Water chemistry and benthic invertebrate communities of 100 headwater streams within 10 South Island, New Zealand, ecoregions were examined to assess the usefulness of ecoregions as a basis for stream classification. (Stream Faunas and Ecoregions in South Island, New Zealand: Do they correspond? Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Sciences. Issue 51, 22 Dec 97)

… Both urban lawns and semi-natural grasslands were sampled around Volkhov aluminum smelter and Syasskij pulp and paper mill. (Effects of Pollution and Urbanization on Diversity of Frit Flies. Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Sciences. Issue 30, 28 Jul 97)

En los siguientes Abstracts, determine las secciones Introducción y Métodos Subraye los verbos conjugados e indique sus tiempos y voces.

ABSTRACT Nº 1.

A Provisional List of Common Names for Australian Butterflies. (Agricultural, Biological and Envrironmental Science. Issue 43. 27 Oct. 97)

A provisional list of common names for the known species of Australian butterflies is presented, and the advantages of producing such a set of standard common names discussed. The criteria and methodology on which the names are based are detailed and instances in which terms should be avoided itemized. All previously used names are reviewed and current and traditional names considered; where possible, traditional names were given highest priority. Group names have been standardized at the higher taxonomic levels (i.e. genus, tribe, subfamily, etc.) Problems faced in compiling the list are discussed and comments on the suitability of the proposed names invited.

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ABSTRACT Nº 2.

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ESTUDIO #13

The Effect of Lead on Allium Cepa L. By D. Lerda. (In Mutation Research 281 1992 Pgs. 89-92)

The effect of lead on Allium cepa L. at concentrations of 0.1, 1.0, 10, 50, 100 and 200 ppm were studied. Analysis focused on root growth, frequency of mitosis in a meristematic zone, and chromosomal aberrations. It was observed that lead reduces rooth growth and the frequency of mitotic cells in meristematic zones, and increases the frequency of aberrant cells. The intensity of the effects is a function of lead concentration.

La forma “-ing” Esta forma es muy común en los textos científicos y tiende a ser traducida, por lo general, asimilándolas a las formas continuas de los distintos verbos (terminación en –ando, -(i)endo del castellano). Esta es sólo una de las varias funciones que se pueden otorgar a la terminación –ing. A continuación revisaremos otros usos que se deben considerar al momento de traducirlas y aprenderemos también como reconocerlas Si la palabra terminada en -ing se encuentra

 después de un sustantivo,  normalmente es traducida como una forma terminada en –ando, -endo The boreal forest is the largest forest region in Canada, occupying approximately 350 mill. Ha. El bosque boreal es la región boscosa más extensa de Canadá, ocupando aproximadamente unas 350 millones de hectáreas.

 antes de un sustantivo  normalmente es traducida como el adjetivo que queda de eliminar -ing agregándosele –ante/-ente; o la frase compuesta por que + el verbo conjugado The dominating variables. (Las variables dominantes; Las variables que dominan)

 precedida por alguna forma del verbo “to be.”  normalmente es traducida como la forma –ando/-endo precedida por verbo estar Fire occurrences are increasing in the boreal forest. (Los casos de incendios están aumentando en el bosque boreal)

 precedida por una preposición distinta de “by” o “in.”  normalmente es traducida como la preposición seguida del infinitivo del verbo sin -ing … for negotiating climate protection agreements

(… para negociar acuerdos de protección del clima)

si la preposición es “in” normalmente se la traduce como la expresión “al + infinitivo del verbo sin –ing.” In analyzing this substance … (Al analizar esta substancia …)

si la preposición es “by” normalmente se la traduce como el modo/medio de hacer/que se hace algo lo que indica el verbo sin –ing. The best way to answer that question is by collecting information. La mejor manera de responder esa pregunta es recolectando información. La mejor manera de responder esa pregunta es mediante la recolección de información. 3

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 en la posición inicial de la oración, o como núcleo del sujeto  normalmente se la traduce como el infinitivo del verbo que resulta de eliminar –ing o como el sustantivo que se deriva de él. Sustaining cultural systems is a great challenge. (Sustentar sistemas de cultivo es un gran desafío. El sostenimiento de sistemas de cultivo es un gran desafío) Extensive grazing should be abandoned. (El pastoreo excesivo debe ser abandonado. Debe abandonarse el pastoreo excesivo)

 después de verbos como start, leave, stop, prefer  normalmente se la traduce como infinitivo del verbo que resulta de eliminar –ing The substance will start burning in five minutes. (La sustancia comenzará a arder en cinco minutos) It will stop burning in five minutes. (Dejará de arder en cinco minutos)

 después de los pronombres relativos while, when  normalmente se traduce como la construcción “cuando/mientras + el verbo conjugado” When/while negociating climate protection protocols. (Cuando/mientras se negocian los protocolos de protección del clima).

Los Pseudos-pronombres En el idioma inglés el ordenamiento de las palabras dentro de la oración es mayormente fijo y es obligatorio que las frases verbales tengan siempre un sujeto al menos que se traten de oraciones imperativas. Para satisfacer esta exigencia, en algunas circunstancias se debe recurrir al uso de los denominados pseudo-pronombres. Estos no son más que una palabra que no aporta significado alguno a la oración pero que se la incluye para evitar que la cláusula sea gramaticalmente incorrecta. Los dos pseudos pronombres en el idioma inglés son IT y THERE. Todos los lenguajes tienen algún tipo de artificio para colocar la información relevante al final de la cláusula y advertir a los lectores o escuchas que necesitan prestar mayor atención a partir de ellos porque lo que viene será difícil de procesar, ya sea porque es nuevo (en el sentido de que puede no haber conexión entre esta información que se va a dar y la conocida hasta el momento) o porque es particularmente complicado (evita el comienzo de una cláusula con una sujeto muy complicado o largo).

“THERE” Es uno de los pseudo-pronombres utilizados. Su forma es “there + verb” (una forma de “be” o algún otro que no acepte objetos tales como exist, remain, live, happen, come. A continuación se incluyen algunos ejemplos del uso de este pseudo pronombre donde se puede ver el efecto que se logra al evitar el uso de sujetos muy largos y complejos. Over 50 distinct ethnic groups live in China

There are over 50 distinct ethnic groups living in China.

Mas de 50 distintos grupos étnicos viven en China

Hay más de 50 grupos étnicos viviendo en China.

… a certain respect for an understanding of Hindu traditions existed.

… there existed a certain respect for an understanding of Hindu traditions

… un cierto respecto para la comprensión de las tradiciones hindú existía.

Existía un cierto respecto para la comprensión de las tradiciones hindúes

… the preservation of power and the reputation of officials always remained.

… there always remained the preservation of power and reputation of officials.

… el cuidado del poder y de la reputación de los funcionarios siempre quedó.

… siempre quedó el cuidado del poder y la reputación de los funcionarios.

... a moment somewhere about eleven minutes after your arrival comes … … un momento en alguna parte alrededor de diez minutos después de tu llegada llega …

... there comes a moment somewhere about eleven minutes after your arrival when you realize … … llega un momento en algun lugar once minutes despu’es de tu llevada que te das cuenta …

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“IT” No son pocas las veces en que la interpretación del pronombre “it” es problemática. Junto a su función de pronombre para indicar cosas o animales, tiene otros usos que nos cuestan identificar puesto que no existe en Castellano un equivalente para ellos. Estos usos son el anticipatorio y el impersonal. a)

ANTICIPATORIO. En este caso it es usado para evitar el comienzo de la cláusula con un sujeto que incluya en sí mismo otra cláusula y por lo tanto, sea difícil de procesar. El uso de este pseudo- pronombre permite que la información encerrada en el mismo sujeto sea agregada al final de la oración donde será más fácil de entender. De esta forma entonces, el it va a estar “anticipando” al lector, va a estar “advirtiéndole” que la información relevante está al final de la oración. Ejemplo.

En lugar de: That your ceiling fell down last week makes no difference Encontraremos: It makes no difference that your ceiling fell down last week En lugar de: Information that is expressed in long, complex subjects is difficult to process Encontraremos: It is difficult to process information that is expressed in long complex subjects.

It va seguido del verbo to be + adjetivo. En lugar de to be pueden usarse también otros como to seem, to appear. It is important to / that … It is necessary to / that … It is possible to / that … It is likey/unlikely to / that … It is obvious/indubitable that …

Es importante que … Es necesario que … Es possible que … Es probable/improbable que… Es obvio/indudable que …

It is essential to / that … Es esencial que … It is imperative to / that … Es obligatorio que … It (often) happens that … (A menudo) sucede que … It seems (probable) that … Parece (probable) que … It would be interesting that … Seria interesante que …

It was clear that the peach trees succeeding apples were growing better than the peach trees succeeding peaches Era evidente que los durazneros plantados después de los manzanos crecían mejor que los plantados después de otros durazneros.

It is important to demonstrate that mangroves can be sustainably harvested. Es importante demostrar que los manglares pueden ser talados sustentablemente.

It will be necessary to leave well-shaped, fruit-producing seed trees every 20mm down the middle of the clearcut. Será necesario dejar los árboles bien formados con semillas que producen frutos cada 20mm en el medio del claro.

b) IMPERSONAL. Se utiliza cuando no es necesario mencionar quien realiza la acción, por lo que generalmente forma parte de las construcciones pasivas. It is well known that … Es bien sabido que … It was accepted that … Se aceptó que … It is assumed that … Se supone que … It has been decided that …Se ha decidido que …

It is thought that … Se piensa que … It must be said that … Se debe decir que … It can also be said that … Se puede decir también que …

It was assumed that plants and animals that do not regulate their body temperatura are strongly affected by environmental temperatura. Se supuso que las plantas y los animales que no regulan su temperatura corporal son intensamente afectados por la temperatura ambiental.

It was observed that in plots with a large amount of small slash, the slash floated on the tides and appeared to have the potential to damage seedlings. Se observo que en las parcelas con una gran cantidad de cortes pequeños, éstos flotaban en la marea alta y parecían tener el potencial de dañar las plántulas.

En los siguientes Abstracts, marque las distintas secciones que los componen. Extraiga de los mismos, ejemplos del uso de los pseudo-pronombres IT y THERE. Tradúzcalos, prestando especial atención a las oraciones con la forma “-ing”

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Child Lifting: Wolves in Hazaribagh, India

ABSTRACT Nº 3

By K.S. Rajpurohit (In Ambio, Vol. 28, # 2, 1999)

The problem of child lifting by wolves in Hazaribagh West, Koderma and Lathehar forest divisions of Bihar State, India, has been evaluated based on records of the Forest Department, interviews and a survey. Five wolf packs have created problems in 63 villages. 80 child casualties occurred from April 1993 to April 1995 and only 20 victims were rescued. All the children were taken from settlements primarily during March to August between 17:00 and 19:00 hrs. There were more female victims (58%) than males and 89% were 3-11 yrs old. Recommendations for the mitigation of humanwolf conflicts and a conservation strategy for wolves might include: surveying wolf habitats for identification of dens and rendezvous sites, and estimating wolf populations; capture of problem wolfs; improving compensations to victim’s families; research on wolf behavior, rabies, wolf/dog hybrids, and the prey-base; possibilities for introducing natural prey, and regulation of wolf populations.

ABSTRACT Nº 4.

Protecting a Garua Forest in Ecuador: The Role of Institutions and Ecosystem Valuation By C.D. Becker (In Ambio, Vol. 28, # 2, 1999)

Inventing or sustaining cultural systems and institutions that provide people with an adequate standard of living while preserving forest ecosystems and their biological diversity is a great challenge facing humanity now an in the coming century. This paper describes an effort to use participatory research and environmental education to affect forest preservation by a community in southwestern Ecuador. The sustainability of lowland agriculture in this area is partially dependent on fog capture by the hill forest. The case study is presented in a theoretical framework of general interest to social and natural scientists concerned with tropical forest preservation. It has particular relevance for integrated conservation and development efforts.

The Value of Water: Floodplain vs. Large-Scale Irrigation Benefits in Northwestern Nigeria

ABSTRACT Nº 5.

By E.B. Barbier and J.R. Thompson (In Ambio, Vol. 27, # 6, pp. 434-440, 1998)

Many African river floodplains are disappearing or being modified as the result of water management activities, in particular large-scale irrigation schemes. Often any resulting impact on downstream wetland benefits is ignored. By combining hydrological and economic analyses we simulate different scenarios for large-scale irrigation schemes in the Hadkjl-Jama’are River Basin in northern Nigeria. We compare the agricultural, fishing and fuelwood benefits lost through reduced flooding downstream against the gains from increased irrigation production upstream. Our analysis suggests that the irrigation benefits can only partially replace the lost benefits from reduced floodplain inundation. Given that several upstream irrigation schemes are completed or currently under construction, our simulations show that the introduction of regulated flood releases is the best hope of minimizing further losses of floodplain benefits. Further expansion of large-scale irrigation within the river basin should also be avoided.

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ESTUDIO #13

Aesthetic values of forests: measuring the visual impact of forestry operations C. Young and M. Wesner Charlotte Young works with Policy, Planning and International Affairs, Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Mike Wesner is in the Department of Psychology, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. This article is adapted from a voluntary paper submitted to the XII World Forestry Congress under the title “Measuring public perceptions of forest industry operations: a method for bridging socio-cultural values”. The abstract of that paper will be included in the Proceedings of the Congress.

Public perceptions of the impact of various industrial forest operations on the aesthetic qualities of the landscape were assessed by measuring people’s responses to variations in pattern and colour.

Sustainable forest management – as defined and measured by internationally accepted categories of criteria and indicators – gives due attention to economic, biological, cultural, social and spiritual values. Thus consideration of sociocultural values is a basic part of sustainable forest management in Canada. Public participation in sustainable forest management programmes is a recognized prerequisite for obtaining acceptance of national forestry policies, and support for forest management programmes and policies may best be achieved by integrating public values into the content of policies. In Canada, public perceptions of the value of temperate and boreal forests are normally measured in three ways: through criteria and indicators related to cultural, social and spiritual values; through the social impact assessment (SIA) process for timber management; or through the observed impact of certification measures. In public surveys and stakeholder meetings, people are often said to value the aesthetic qualities of forests. Although some scientific research has been carried out on “scenic beauty” as a social value (Hodgson and Thayer, 1980; Hull, Buhyoff and Daniel, 1984; Patsfall et al., 1984), no formal process for measuring perceptions of the aesthetic values of forests has ever been prescribed before. There is no measure specifying how or why a scenic quality contributes positively or negatively to human, social, economic, cultural and spiritual values. This article presents the results of a study developed to measure public perceptions of the effect of industrial forest operations on the aesthetic qualities of the landscape, based on perceived variations in pattern and colour. A similar technique has been used by the advertising industry to assess which package design will stand out and capture consumers’ attention in a commercial environment, and by military researchers to design areas of camouflage (e.g. Carter and Carter, 1981). Yet this type of study has never been carried out before in applied forestry research. The study measured the aesthetic acceptability of three types of industrial forest operations: a checkerboard pattern of clear-cutting; irregular patches of clear-cutting; and a logging roadway.

STUDY METHODOLOGY The experiment used 80 volunteers, undergraduate students from Lakehead University, ranging in age from 19 to 35 years. All of the participants were tested for potential colour-vision deficiencies using the Ishibhara colour plate test. Each of the volunteers was presented with 84 randomized landscape images from a total of 420 forest images (three spatial patterns x five randomized backgrounds x seven chromatic variations x four quadrant locations), presented on a 17-inch, high-resolution red-green-blue (RGB) monitor. The 420 images were created by using Adobe ® Photoshop ® (1991 version) to present each of the three target forest operation patterns – checkerboard clearing, irregular clearing and logging road – in different positions in five background templates, each depicting an aerial photograph of a boreal forest. Four of the backgrounds included a lake, positioned in a different quadrant in each (two “near lakes” and two “far lakes”). The fifth had no lake. Samples of these images are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

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The three target forest operation patterns were positioned in each of the different quadrants to measure the effects of distance (foreground versus horizon) and left versus right location on the viewers’ preferences. The colour of each pattern was modulated in three incrementally increasing and three decreasing steps along the red-green axis, for a total of seven chromatic steps (as defined by the International Commission on Illumination [CIE], 1931). The highlights and shadows of the patterns and background were kept constant, as was their overall luminance, in order to measure only the effects of location and colour of the forestry operations on the perceived aesthetics. Prior to entering the laboratory, the observers were told that they would rate the beauty of forests as if they were viewing them from a low-flying aircraft. The background templates with and without the lake (with no industry presence) were first presented to all observers. Each observer was then asked to rate 84 scenes for one background only. Thus only the spatial and chromatic properties of the forestry operation varied, against a constant background. The observers rated all randomly presented configurations during a single session. The ratings were made along an unmarked vertical 100 mm scale. The 80 volunteers produced a total of 6 720 public perception observations. Data interpretation was conducted using a four-way multifactor design (spatial pattern, background, colour variation, quadrant location) with repeated measures on three factors. Following previous researchers’ recommendations (Owens, 1988; Schroeder, 1991), in order to identify values that were consistently important to the participants, the study allowed the observers to make qualifying statements at the end of the rating session so they could describe their strategies for rating the scenes as they did.

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