Evolution.
Diagram by SZE TSUNG LEONG
• c. 1500 B.C.E.: Market at Thebes
• 7000 B.C.E.: City of Çatalhöyük founded for the trade of commodities
Evolution of retail types
shop agoramarketplace • c. 110: Trajan's Market
• Several centuries B.C.E.: Chains of retail stores are known to have operated in China
• Seventh century B.C.E.: Lydians invent retail shops
• c. 400 B.C.E.: The Greek agora conflates public forum and marketplace
0
bazaar • 1608: Amsterdam Exchange
• 1606: New Exchange, London
1580
• Early 17th century: Growth of markets in Europe
1500
• Late 16th century: Fabric bazaar, Isfahan
• 1566–68: Royal Exchange, London
• Lock-up stalls
• 1514: House of Raphael, Rome, Bramante
• 1435–44: Leone Battista Alberti writes Della Famiglia, from which the capitalist maxim "time is money" would later be derived.
• 1100–1300: Rise of trade causes significant growth of shops
• Middle Ages: Marketplace as civic center
1200 1600
exch
1660 1680
• 18th century: Rise of bourgeoisie
1640
• 1667–71: Second Royal Exchange, London
• 1657: Boston Town Hall and Marketplace
hanges • 17th century: Explosion of shops due to rise in credit
1620 1700
stock exchange
arcades 1811: Passage Montesquieu, Paris •
• 1793: First magasin de nouveauté, Paris
1780
1808: Passage Delorme, Paris •
1799: Passage du Caire, Paris • 1800: Passage des Panoramas, Paris •
1791: Passage Feydeau, Paris •
1760
1786: First arcade: Galeries de Bois, Paris •
1740
• 1762: Foire St. Germain, Paris (established 1462)
•1720: Antoine Watteau, L'Enseigne de Gersaint
1720 1800
magas
1820: Passage de la Monnaie, Brussels • 1822: Arcades influence prison reform • 1823: Passage de l'Opéra, Paris • 1825: Passage Choiseul, Paris • 1826: Philadelphia Arcade, Phil. • 1827: Weybosset Arcade, Providence • 1828: Galerie d'Orléans, Paris • 1829: Lowther Arcade, London • 1831: Royal Arcade, Newcastle • 1831: Galerie de Cristoforis, Milan • 1831: Galerie Bordelaise, Bordeaux •
1818–19: Burlington Arcade, London •
1816–18: Royal Opera Arcade, London •
european bazaar
1837–39: Passage Lemonnier, Liège •
1816-1840
1899: City Arcades, Birmingham •
1897: County Arcade, Leeds •
1890: Alexandra Arcade, Swansea • Galleria Nazionale, Turin •
1909–11: Pariser Hof, Budapest • 1912: Piccadilly Arcade, London •
• 1907: Neiman Marcus, Dallas • 1908: Selfridge’s, London (Daniel Burnham) • 1908–12: Whiteley's building, London (Belcher & Joass) • 1909: 238 Woolworth's shops • 1911: Goldman & Salatsch, Vienna (Adolf Loos)
• 1905: Harrod‘s moves into present-day location (Stevens & Hunt)
☛ “Crystal Palace”
1907: Friedrichstrassenpassage, Berlin •
• 1902: Macy’s, Marshall Field‘s, and JC Penney‘s
• 1901: A l’Innovation department store, Brussels (Victor Horta)
• 1899–1904: Carson, Pirie, Scott, Chicago (Sullivan) • 1899: 54 Woolworth's shops
• 1896: Siegel-Cooper, New York • 1896: Wanamaker’s, New York
• 1890: 12 Woolworth's shops
• 1883: Emile Zola, Au Bonheur des Dames • 1884: Marks & Spencer‘s, London
1880
1904: Central Arcade, Wolverhampton •
chain stores
• 1879: First Woolworth's, Lancaster, Pa. • 1879: Second Woolworth's, Utica, N.Y.
• 1872: Bloomingdale‘s, New York
• 1888–93: GUM, Moscow
in de nouveautés
1887: Kaiser Passage, Karlsruhe • 1888: Queen's Arcade, Leeds • Cleveland Arcade, Cleveland •
1871: Barton Arcade, Manchester • 1873: Lancaster Avenue, Manchester • 1874: Galleria Subalpina, Turin • 1875: Great Western Arcade, Birmingham • 1878: Thornton's Arcade, Leeds • 1879: Royal Arcade, London • 1880: Galleria Manzini, Genoa • 1882: Passage du Nord, Brussels • 1883–85: Passage, The Hague •
1869: Royal Arcade, Melbourne •
• 1859: First modern chain store: Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co., New York
1860
1900: Kaiser Wilhelm Passage, Frankfurt am Main • 1901: Georgs Passage, Hannover •
☛ “Mobility”
1865–77 Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Milan •
☛ “Three-Ring Circus”
department st museums • 1858: Macy's, New York
• 1858: Messrs Osler's shop, London
• 1851: Crystal Palace, London (Joseph Paxton) • 1852: First department store: Au Bon Marché, Paris
• 1840s: Charles Henry Harrod takes over a small grocery shop
1840
1863: Königin Augusta Halle, Cologne •
1855: Utopian arcade projects, London: Crystal Way and Great Victorian Way •
1853: Queen's Arcade, Melbourne •
• 1853: Halles Centrales, Paris
1842–43: Exeter Arcade, London • Sillem's Bazar, Hamburg • 1845: Passage Jouffroy, Paris • 1846–47: Galeries St. Hubert, Brussels •
1840–43: Passage Pommeraye, Nantes •
• 1827: Design for a Kaufhaus (Karl Friedrich Schinkel)
• 1824: Introduction of fixed prices
1820 1900
☛ “High Architecture”
total escalators worldwide
galleria
duty-free
supermarket
☛ “Ms. Consumer”
1957: First duty-free shop, 500 Shannon airport, Ireland •
convenience store
• 1960: 40% of Americans shop in 10,000 supermarkets 1965: British Airports Authority established •
total
conven
st ience
ores,
U.S.
hypermarket superette superstore
railway station shopping
airport shopping
shopping resorts
☛ “Tokyo Metabolism”
ar
M al ts
☛ “Next Big Thing”
US
n me
Early 1990s: Heathrow known as "Thiefrow" • 84,500 1992: BAA opens mall at Pittsburg Airport • 84,500 1995: BAA classified as retail stock • 84,400 1995: Avg. sales: $970 / sq. ft. • 1995: Worldwide duty-free sales: $20.5 billion • 1996–: Grand Central Station undergoes $175 million renovation • 1996: Heathrow Terminal 2 refurbished • 1997: Avg. sales: $1,000–1,200 / sq. ft. (vs. $200–300 for malls) • 1999: Abolishment of intra-E.U. duty-free •
entertainment shopping
warehouse clubs
☛ “Divine Economy”
churches
☛ “. . . And Then There Was Shopping”
☛ “Mall”
1,503,593
1,923,228
1,855,068
1,707,931
"American retailing is heading for a 'die-out' of Darwiniam proportions . . . Wal-Mart CEO David Glass and Stanley Marcus are predicting that 50 –75% of present retail will be extinct within a decade." —Dale M. Lewison, Retailing.
160,000
• 2000: Wal-Mart: $165 billion in sales
1,722
• 1990: Wal-Mart: $25.8 billion in sales 1,531 36,515 • 1991: U.S. mail-order sales: $91.50 billion • 1991 Total U.S. department store sales: $177.88 billion 37,975 Total retail sales: $1,843.521,526,215 billion • 1992 Siegel-Cooper, New York, turned into vertical power center 38,966 • 1992: Mall of America 11,001 • 1992–94: 55% of new U.S. retail = big box 39,543 40,281 • 1994: 80% of new U.S. retail = category killers 41,151 • 1995: Wal-Mart: $93.6 billion in sales• 1995: 12,952 retail failures in U.S. • 1995: 4.97 billion sq. ft. total leasable retail area 1,528 42,048 Donna Karan, London Largest retailer in the world •• 1996: 1997: Niketown, New York • 1997–: As many as one in five malls will close
10,041
W
34,683
32,563
30,641
276
• 1980: Wal-Mart: $1 billion in sales
1,264,922
1,191,546
virtual shopping
1980
83,000
1988: Washington's Union Station remodeled • 82,500
drive-thru
25,500
9,981
• 1979: Home Depot, Atlanta
• 1976: Price Club, San Diego
to
80,000
8,807
• 1969: First GAP, San Francisco 32 • 1970: Wal-Mart: $31 million in sales 7,742
l ta
76,000
☛ “Suburban Model”
66,000
ll l ma
• 1981: Largest mall: West Edmonton
22,000
strip mall . s, U.S
37,400
5,792
☛ “High Architecture”
36,576
☛ “Three-Ring Circus”
30,470
☛ “Gruen Urbanism”
tota
30,200
• 1962: First Wal-Mart
outlets
32,200 1977: Privatization of British 33,904 Airports Authority (BAA) • 35,750
13,000
art
• 1971: The Galleria, Houston
• 1968: Dominion Center, Toronto (Mies van der Rohe) 45,700
ep
26,870
4,251
category killers discounters Wal-Mart
• 1964: Yorkdale Shopping Plaza, Toronto: 72 acres; parking for 6,736 cars
7,100
1,788,325
1,721,650
1,771,317
1960
24,516
2,761
• 1954: Victor Gruen's first mall: Northland, Detroit
mail order/catalogue shopping
• 1956: First enclosed mall: Southdale, Minneapolis (Victor Gruen) 2,900 • 1957: De3,157 Bijenkorf, Rotterdam • 1957: Original Toys"R"Us, (Marcel Breuer) Washington, D.C.
al d
es,
or t st
21,538
pedestrian mall tot
19,000
franchise 2,645
1940
3700
2700
1,770,355
1,543,158
US ores, dual st indivi
• 1950: First open-air mall: Northgate, Seattle • 1951: First dumbell plan: Framingham, Mass. • 1951–53: Lijnbaan, Rotterdam (van den Broek & Bakema)
"a few hundred"
☛ “Depato”
• 1941: 82 Woolworth's shops in Germany alone
total
4,074
• 1925: Sears, Roebuck, Chicago • 1927: Hankyu Terminal Depato, Tokyo • 1928: Adam Department Store Project, Berlin (Mies van der Rohe) • 1928: Schocken Department Store, Stuttgart (Erich Mendelsohn) 4,190 • 1929: 766 Woolworth's shops in Britain alone • 1930: Department stores branch out to suburbs
• 1920s: First outlet stores, New England • 1922: First unified shopping mall: Country Club Plaza, Kansas City
• 1919: 1,081 Woolworth's shops
• 1912–13: Woolworth's Building, New York • 1915: Mitsukoshi Depato, Tokyo
tore
"Before World War I the arcade died an almost official death; no building authority would permit it in its nineteenth-century form . . . no real estate authority could permit such an exploitation of land." —Johann Friedrich Geist, Arcades.
shopping mall
• 1930: First supermarket: King Kullen, N.Y. • 1930: Self-service introduced, Los Angeles
1925: Galleria Piazza Colonna, Rome •
1916: Peachtree Arcade, Atlanta •
1914: Mädler Passage, Leipzig •
1920 ☛ “e-urope”
☛ “Bit Structures”
2000
☛ “Nikecology”
☛ “Disney Space”
☛ “Jerde Transfer”
☛ “Ms. Consumer”
☛ “Resistance”
☛ “City of Shopping”
☛ “Good Intentions” ☛ “Real(i)ty”
☛ “Captive”
Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping
• 1907: Neiman Marcus, Dallas • 1908: Selfridge’s, London (Daniel Burnham) • 1908–12: Whiteley's building, London (Belcher & Joass) • 1909: 238 Woolworth's shops • 1911: Goldman & Salatsch, Vienna (Adolf Loos)
Evolution of retail types (detail) • 1905: Harrod‘s moves into present-day location (Stevens & Hunt)
• 1902: Macy’s, Marshall Field‘s, and JC Penney‘s
t store
calators worldwide
Architecture” • 1919: 1,081 Woolworth's shops
en, N.Y. eles
shopp
3700
2700
2,645
4,074
franchise
1950: First open-air mall: Northgate, Seattle
"a few hundred"
☛ “Depato”
• 1941: 82 Woolworth's shops in Germany alone
• 1925: Sears, Roebuck, Chicago • 1927: Hankyu Terminal Depato, Tokyo • 1928: Adam Department Store Project, Berlin (Mies van der Rohe) • 1928: Schocken Department Store, Stuttgart (Erich Mendelsohn) 4,190 • 1929: 766 Woolworth's shops in Britain alone • 1930: Department stores branch out to suburbs
• 1920s: First outlet stores, New England 1922: First unified shopping mall: Country Club Plaza, Kansas City
official death; no building authority would permit it in its nineteenth-century form . . . no real estate authority could permit such an exploitation of land." —Johann Friedrich Geist, Arcades.
• 1912–13: Woolworth's Building, New York • 1915: Mitsukoshi Depato, Tokyo "Before World War I the arcade died an almost
36
☛ “Hi
mail ord
1951: First dumbell plan: Framingham, Mass. 1951–53: Lijnbaan, Rotterdam (van den Broek & Bakema)
ping mall
der/catalogue shopping
4,251
• 1962: First Wal-Mart
category killer discounters Wal-Mart
strip mall
tota
lls, U l ma
.S.
drive-thru
entertainment sh
ts ar
warehouse clubs
☛ “Next Big Thing”
US
☛ “Div
churches
☛ “. . . And Then There Was Shopping”
☛ “Mall”
37
36,515
160,000
1,722
• 1990: Wal-Mart: $25.8 billion in sales 1,531 • 1991: U.S. mail-o • 1991 Total U.S. department store sales: $177.88 billion 37,975 Total retail sales • 1992 Siegel-Cooper, New York, turned into vertical power center 38,966 1992: Mall of America 11,001 • 1992–94: 55% of new U.S. retail = big box 39,543 40,281 • 1994: 80% of new U.S. retail = category killers 41,151 • 1995: Wal-Mart: $93.6 billion in sales• 1995: 12,952 retail 1995: 4.97 billion sq. ft. total42,048 leasable retail area 1,528 1996: Donna Kara Largest retailer in the world • • 1997: Niketown, N 1997–: As many as one in five malls will close
10,041
M al lW a t
34,683
32,563
30,641
9,981
• 1980: Wal-Mart: $1 billion in sales
276
• 1979: Home Depot, Atlanta
to
25,500
8,807
• 1976: Price Club, San Diego
• 1969: First GAP, San Francisco 32 • 1970: Wal-Mart: $31 million in sales 7,742
outlets
1981: Largest mall: West Edmonton
5,792
st s, ore
22,000
ep m art t en
1971: The Galleria, Houston
al d
13,000
tot
1968: Dominion Center, Toronto (Mies van der Rohe) 45,700
1964: Yorkdale Shopping Plaza, Toronto: 72 acres; parking for 6,736 cars
7,100
1956: First enclosed mall: Southdale, Minneapolis (Victor Gruen) 2,900 • 1957: De3,157 Bijenkorf, Rotterdam • 1957: Original Toys"R"Us, (Marcel Breuer) Washington, D.C.
2,761
1954: Victor Gruen's first mall: Northland, Detroit
igh Architecture” ☛“
☛“
☛“
☛“
☛“
38
Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping
• 190
pedestri
• 1950: First open-air mall: Northg
3700
2700
☛ “Depato”
"a few hundred"
• 193
• 192 • 192 • 192 • 192
• 1922: First unified shopping
• 191
• 190 • 190 • 190 • 191
"Before World War I the arcade died an almost official death; no building authority would permit it in its nineteenth-century form . . . no real estate authority could permit such an exploitation of land." —Johann Friedrich Geist, Arcades.
shopp
• 1930: First supermarket: King Kullen, N.Y. • 1930: Self-service introduced, Los Angeles
1925: Galleria Piazza Colonna, Rome •
1916: Peachtree Arcade, Atlanta •
calators worldwide
Evolution of retail types (detail) • 190
Architecture”
1914: Mädler Passage, Leipzig •
1909–11: Pariser Hof, Budapest • 1912: Piccadilly Arcade, London •
1907: Friedrichstrassenpassage, Berlin •
1904: Central Arcade, Wolverhampton •
t store
d
superma ☛ “Ms. Consu
duty-free
arket
umer” 1957: First duty-free shop, 500 Shannon airport, Ireland •
convenience store
• 1960: 40% of Americans shop in 10,000 supermarkets 1965: British Airports Authority established •
hypermarket superette superstore
e stor
tota
c enien l conv
railway station shopping
airport shopping 30,200
30,470
26,870
shopping resorts
80,000
Early 1990s: Heathrow known as "Thiefrow" • 84,500 1992: BAA opens mall at Pittsburg Airport • 84,500 1995: BAA classified as retail stock • 84,400 1995: Avg. sales: $970 / sq. ft. • 1995: Worldwide duty-free sales: $20.5 billion • 1996–: Grand Central Station undergoes $175 million renovation • 1996: Heathrow Terminal 2 refurbished • 1997: Avg. sales: $1,000–1,200 / sq. ft. (vs. $200–300 for malls) • 1999: Abolishment of intra-E.U. duty-free •
83,000
1988: Washington's Union Station remodeled • 82,500
☛ “Tokyo Metabolism” 76,000
66,000
☛ “Suburban Model”
22,000
40,281
39,543
38,966
37,975
• 1997–: As many as one in five m
41,151 • 1995: 4.97 billion sq. ft. total lea 42,048
• 1992: Mall of America
☛ “Mall”
36,515
34,683
32,563
30,641
25,500
• 199 • 199
• 1981: Largest mall: West Edmon
.S.
37,400
lls, U l ma
36,576
13,000
• 1971: The Galleria, Houston
• 1968: Dominion Center, Toronto (Mies van der Rohe) 45,700
• 1964: Yorkdale Shopping Plaza,
7,100
• 1956: First enclosed mall: So 2,900 • 195 (Ma
• 1954: Victor Gruen's first mall: N
tota
32,200 1977: Privatization of British 33,904 Airports Authority (BAA) • 35,750
. es, U.S
24,516
☛ “Gruen Urbanism”
21,538
☛ “Three-Ring Circus”
19,000
• 1951: First dumbell plan: Framin • 1951–53: Lijnbaan, Rotterdam (v
ian mall
ping mall strip mall
drive-thru
☛ “City of Shopping” ☛ “Real(i)ty”
☛ “Good Intentions”
☛ “Cap
Evolution of retail mechanisms
0
Counter
Mannequin Abacus
1323 B.C.E.: First known mannequin, made of wood, found in the tomb of King Tutankhamen
2300–500 B.C.E.: Invention of abacus
Printing Mirror
Second century: Printing developed in China
First century: Reflecting metal large enough to reflect the whole body is produced
2500 B.C.E.: glass thought to have originated in Mesopotamia flat glass known to have been used in Pompeii for windows
Glass
Barter 1200 B.C.E.: Cowrie shells used as money in China
Money
687 B.C.E.: Invention of coins in Lydia coincides with invention of retail shop
shop agoramarketplace
Roads
600 B.C.E.: Round, metal coins invented in China 118 B.C.E.: Leather money issued in China
Roman road systems
Pedestrian zones
45 B.C.E.: Pedestrian zones officially legislated in Rome
☛ “Mobility”
Diagram by SZE TSUNG LEONG
Lighting
500–400 B.C.E.: Oil lamps
Topiary
Money Glass Movement Lighting Communication Nature
300: Roman coin
0: Candles in general production
1000: Song Dynasty coin 806–21: Paper money invented in China
1200
1500
1580
1600
1450: Gutenberg press
Late 12th century: Glass with metallic backing is used for mirrors
Crown glass
Middle Ages and later: Crown glass, made by spinning, used in windows
Paper Money
bazaar
exch
1620
1640
1660
1680
1700
Slide rule Calculator
1642: First gear-driven mechanical calculator
17th century: Metal coins, paper notes, and bookkeeping entries become standard practice in Europe
Credit
hanges
17th century: use of credit leads to explosion in number of shops
Mid-17th century: Mirror making extends fom Venice to London and Paris
Cast glass Newspaper advertising
1688: cast glass invented Late 1600s: First appearance of glazed shop fronts in Holland
1666: First newspaper advertising supplement, London Gazette
Sidewalk ☛ “Mobility”
1666: Sidewalks provided in London after the Great Fire
French landscape gardening English picturesque landscape ☛ “Replascape”
1720
1740
1760
1780
1800
Late 18th – early 19th century: Use of paper money and bank notes spreads throughout Europe
Sprinkler system
Skylight
1800: First sprinkler system
maga Skylight enables the arcades
arcades
Late 18th century: Scientific construction of roads — first since Roman times
stock exchange 1784: Gas lighting
Kiosk
Early 18th century: Kiosk originates in Islamic architecture
1820
1840
1860
1900
1888: Liquid crystals discovered
Telephone order 1876: Alexander Graham Bell patents telephone
Telephone Mail order Magazine advertising
1872: First mail-order catalogue sent to farmers by Montgomery Ward Late 19th century: Completion of continental rail network in the U.S.A. facilitates mail-order. Mail order system established in Europe
1666: First newspaper advertising supplement, London Gazette
1833: Difference engine invented by Charles Babbage
Fixed prices
1824: Fixed prices introduced
Catalogues
chain storesPublic lavatories
department st museums Elevator
1870s: Parmelee heat-sensitive sprinkler head introduced in the U.S.
Grand staircase
1859: Ames escalator patent 1851: Crystal Palace, London ☛ “Crystal Palace” 19th century: Production of full-length mirror used for dressing purposes
in de nouveautés
Railroads
1903: Pneumatic tube provides communication within large buildings
Pneumatic tube
1869: First elevator in a department ☛ “Ms. Consumer” store, Paris 1892: Wheeler and Reno escalator patents 1895: Escalator Escalator installed in Harrod‘s, London ☛ “Escalator”
1842: John Gorrie proposes cooling cities 1889: Citywide pipeline refrigeration Mid-19th century: Glass becomes mass produced 1850: Largest available sheet of glass: 7–8 feet by 3–4 feet 1843: Account of floor-to-ceiling glass, London 1828: Largest available sheet of glass: 4 feet by 5 feet 1874: First known moving platform proposal Moving 19th century: Development of railroads
1820: Gas street lighting, Pall Mall, London 19th century: Coal gas distributed to buildings for lighting 1838–70: Citywide sidewalk system built in Paris
galleria
1870: Incandescent electric lamp
Display case european bazaar
1816-1840
Neon Late 19th century: First neon light
Vending machine
1883: First vending machine, London
Silent salesmen ☛ “Ms. Consumer”
Coupons
1892: First coupon introduced by C. W. Post to promote Grape-Nuts cereal
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
virtual shopping Internet
☛ “e-urope”
☛ “Bit Structures”
Flat-screen display
entertainment shopping
LCD 1963: First LCD display 1945: First plastic mannequin
1923: First wax mannequin, Moulin Rouge, Paris
WAP
Animatronics
mail-order/catalogue shopping
ReplascapeTM Radio advertising
Billboards
1920s
1913: Parcel-post system established in U.S.
☛ “ReplascapeTM”
Global positioning
1945: Greatest expansion of mail order in Europe 1960: Computerized mailing lists
Computer
warehouse clubs
outlets
Logistics category killers discounters Wal-Mart
Early 20th century: Regulation of advertising for truth ☛ “Mobilize” 1946: ENIAC calculator, housed in a 30 by 50 foot room 1944: Mark I calculator by IBM 1967: First hand-held electronic calculator by Texas Instruments
TV
1926: First working television
1920s: Credit cards first used in the U.S. for individual companies
franchise
1950: First universal credit card introduced by Diner's Club
Escalator aids growth of department store
Air conditioning
strip mall drive-thru
Float glass
☛ “Ulterior Spaces”
shopping mall
1959: The float glass process ensures perfectly flat glass
Air conditioning and highways enable the shopping mall
pedestrian mall
Skywalks
1930s: Fluorescent tube
Consumer psychology
1950s: Pedestrianization of European city centers
UPC
☛ “Psychogramming”
☛ “Mobility”
1968: Fiber optics Late 1970s: Over 200 pedestrian malls in U.S.
airport shopping
railway station shopping
Late 1940s: Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver apply for patents for the U.P.C. symbol and its decoder
☛ “Bit Structures”
duty free
Shopping cart
Surveillance systems
1925: First modern superhighway: Bronx River Parkway 1920s: Italian Autostrada and German Reichautobanen
Highway
2000: Avg. credit card debt in the U.S. is $2,814
Geographic Information Systems
1919: First department store air-conditioned 1902: Stock Exchange air-conditioned 1905: “Air Conditioning” coined by Stuart Cramer 1900: Moving sidewalk at Paris Exposition
☛ “Mobility”
Debit card
Customer profiling
Revolving door
☛ “Air Conditioning”
sidewalk
Smart card
churches
Customer tracking
tore Credit card
1970s: First automated teller machines
ATM
Early 1950s: Color TV
UPC code coincides with growth of supermarket size
supermarket
Early 1920s: First shopping cart made in Houston, Texas
Self-service Cash register
☛ “Ms. Consumer”
Optical scanner
1956: Gordon Gould inventssuperette laser hypermarket and applies for patent superstore Mid-20th century: Electrically driven mechanical cash register
1975: First optical scanners shopping resorts used at checkout counters
1985: Gould receives patent Late 1970s: Electronically driven cash register, enabling instant credit checks, recording of transactions, and inventory control
convenience store
heating
steam heating
ventilation theories complex stoves hot-air heating radiator
ventilation
fans
1870s: Comfort cooling attempted by passing air over chilled pipes in several buildings in France and England 1873: Steam-powered fans developed for hospitals
hospitals
1880: Hotel dining room in Staten Island, N.Y., comfort cooled by passing air over ice
theaters
museums
industrial evolution; was also a commercial evolution: commodification of leisure, fashion system, breaking up of social borders, new form of business and commercial organizations, new market infrastructure.
0
200ft
heat conductors
factories office buildings
shopping
HVAC air-conditioned cars
weathermaster environmental control
dehumidifier heat pipe hot plate
heat pipes heat superconductor
pre-cooled air
district heating
Variable Air Volume
1996: Dali Museum, St. Petersburgh, Florida, cooled by HPT
1996: Disney Village, St. Petersburgh, Florida, cooled by HPT
1980s–90s: NASA uses HPT in space
1955:
1980:
1970:
1960:
1980s: Environmentally friendly refrigerants
1980: Freon banned as a result of ozone damage
55% of American homes have air conditioning
36% of American homes have air conditioning
12% of American homes have air conditioning
5% of American homes have air conditioning
19601780
identific
1997: 84% of malls air-conditioned
VAV system
1986: Heat Pipe technology patented by Khan Dinh (U.S.)
Carrier system made for glass skyscrapers 1961: Milano Rinascente Store “a technological building for a historical setting“ 1963: “There is no question that the public 1967: Queen Elizabeth Hall sees air conditioning as an absolute necessity.“ London —Progressive Architecture “The form takes its cue direclty from the air-flow within“
20 92
1950: Air conditioning is America's second-fastest growing industry after television 1952: Plug-in electric air conditioner 1952: air-conditioning companes in existence 1954: air-conditioning companes in existence
1940 1760
1972–77: World Trade Center
climate control
1955: U.S. Government officially sponsors use of air conditioning in government buildings
1948: “No modern store can function properly . . . without air conditioning“ 1949: United Nations Building —Progressive Architecture Climatized air delivered through pipes in the curtain wall 1950: “Air conditioning 1949: The Pentagon Air-conditioned by Carrier has reshaped every 12 million cubic feet of air cooled each minute element of the modern
Cabinet
1928: Residential air-conditioning unit developed by Willis Carrier 1930: Freon
1922: Centrifugal refrigeration machine makes air conditioning of large spaces possible
residential
1932: 1751 HARRIS Hermes Wks. (1841) 233 "Is it not Atmospheric marvellous, there should be so exact an Carrier identity of out ideas?"
1938: 92% of U.S. theaters 1938: “Eliminating all air-conditioned windows in selling spaces . . . adds 1938: Fortune Magazine publishes to selling efficiency“ “Air Conditioning of Office Buildings“ —Department Store Economist
1932: Philadelphia Savings Fund Society Building
1924: Palace, Texan, and Iris Theaters Houston 1925: Rivoli Theater New York 1928: Millam Building, Chicago
1920 1740
1986: Mall of America Minneapolis
man made weather
air conditioning
1920: Paramount Movie Houses Paris 1921: Grauman's Metropolitan Theater Los Angeles
1917: New Empire Theater Montgomery, Alabama
1900 1720
1919: Abraham & Strauss New York First air-conditioned department store 1922: Macy's New York 1924: J.L. Hudson Department Store Detroit
1880 1700
1956: Southdale Mall Edina First climate-controlled mall
1890: Great Ice Famine creates worldwide ice shortages
1889: Pipeline refrigeration provides refrigeration on an urban scale
1856: Ether compression ice machine patented by James Harrison
patented by Alexander Twining
Evolution of air conditioning (☛ Air Conditioning, 124–25)
store“ —Victor Gruen
dehumidification
1899: First cooling and dehumidification system Dissecting Room, Cornell Medical Building, New York Alfred Wolff 1902: Willis Carrier tries unsuccessfully to dehumidify air 1902: “Man-Made Weather“ coined by Willis Carrier 1904: New York Stock Exchange 1904: First public building comfort cooled Louisiana Purchase Exposition 1905: “Air conditioning“ coined by Stuart Cramer 1906: Larkin Office Building 1906: Apparatus for Treating Air patented by Willis Carrier Buffalo 1907: Metropolitan Museum of Art 1908: Psychrometric chart developed by Willis Carrier Frank Lloyd Wright refers to indoor weather control as “Air conditioning“ 1911: Air conditioning recognized as an official branch of engineering 1913: American Tobacco Company Plant installs Carrier air-conditioning unit
1889: Carnegie Hall comfort cooled by passing air over ice 1890: Electric fans
ice machines
1851: Air-cycle compression refrigeration system patented by John Gorrie 1851: Liquid vapor-compression ice machine
1860 1680
1877: Lockport District, New York, heated from a central source Birdsill Holly
manual ice harvesting
1842: Proposal for cooling cities Gorrie
comfort cooling
1669 GALE Crt. Gentiles I.I. iii. 21 "That the John Phenicians were originally Canaanites, is manifest from the Identitie of their Languages".
16601840
1860s: Large industrial fans produced
evaporative cooling
cooling vacuum refrigeration
1840–42: Heating in Pentoville Prison, London
1839: Houses of Parliament, London plans for heating and ventilating
compression refrigeration
1834: Closed-cycle compression refrigeration system patented by Jacob Perkins
1640 1820
1833: Patent for Base Burner Stove Ne w York
chemical refrigeration
1800
1830: Hot water radiators installed Westminster Hospital, London
1654 Z. Coke Logick (1657) 88 "Causall Identity is not them that agree in Accidents."
refrigeration Early 1800s: The natural ice industry becomes an international enterprise
1805: Closed-cycle compression refrigeration described by Oliver Evans
1620
1802: Heating in textile mills by Boulton and Watt
0
Index to evolution diagrams
Diagram by SZE TSUNG LEONG and SRDJAN JOVANOVIC WEISS
1980 1800
draft control smell control
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0
0.4
0.2
0.0
1816-1840
Fordism: 1920s, first proclaimed general ideology of affluence.
1880 - 1930: mass production of consumer goods, geographical / social spreading of the market, rationalization of form and organization of production.
1850 - 1870: prosperous mid-Victorian years, international exhibitions domestication of nature.
romanticism: the quesst of authenticity as a critique of modernization; naturalness, emotional gratification, ethnic / national cultural values, happy domesticity, natural women.
0.8
0.4 Starch Index of Advertising Recall
0.6
Watson at 0.2 J. Walter Thompson
0.4
Bernays Crystallizing Public Opinion
1912 "The Neurotic Constitution" by Adler
0.6
Gallup founds American Institute of Public Opinion 1.0
0.0
1927 "Conditioned Reflexes" by Pavlov
Conditioningemotional conditioning
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Behaviorism Segment id-ego-superego Analytical Psychology Psychograph statistical research lead by Alfred Politz 1.0
0.4 Japan total Radio ads.
ClusterPlus survey sampling PRIZM™
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.2
0.6
0.0
1.0
0.8
symbolic interactionism
0.6
0.0
stimulus substitution
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.0
Hierarchy of Needs
0.0 1954 "Motivation and Personality" by Maslow 1.2
UK total
1913 "Psychology as the Behaviorist Sees It" by Watson
¥670 million
¥4,092 million
¥4,208 million
OASYS ACORN Microvision data mining
0.2 • 451 • 481 • 583
Cycle of Life
• 3,125 • 3,333
• 2,604 • 2,888
s.
• 4,073
• 3,743
• 3,473
• 2,472
• 2,295
• 2,325
• 2,288
• 2,127
ad
• 344 2,181 ••19,162
• 3,866
• 3,692
• 3,417
7,000 escalators sold anually worldwide
1990
1980
1970
300 / year
0 / year
• 1995: 9,000/year worldwide - 30,000 exists in the US • 1996: OTIS reports production of 2,050 /year, 60,000 in operation • 1997: 15,000 escalators ordered annually
• 1993: Mitsubishi: accumulated 20,000 escalators
• 1990:
• 1989: Mitsubishi: accumulated 15,000 escalators
• 1983: Mitsubishi: accumulated 10,000 escalators
• 1974: Mitsubishi: accumulated 5,000 escalators
• 1970: U.S.: 329 escalators operate in office buildings
• 1997: OTIS plans accumulated 15,000 in China • 19,162
• 17,553
• 16,435
• 15,891
• 16,526
• 16,793
• 16,046
• 14,627
• 13,161
• 11,745
• 10,908
• 10,633
1980
• 541 • 478 • 424
• 1,674 • 1,872
• 1,374
• 1,245
• 1,110
• 928
• 809
• 10,307
1.0
• 402 • 437
• 11,267 • 2,334 • 2,507 • 12,725 • 2,772 • 13,592 • 3,119 • 3,206 • 13,445 • 2,902 • 12,172 • 2,597 • 2,545 • 11,087 • 2,631 • 11,211 • 2,806 • 2,874 • 11,657 • 2,949 • 12,379 • 3,571
• 9,882
• 9,145
• 8,887
• 692
• 9,620
• 9,055
• 8,389
• 7,883
• 7,508
• 6,535
• 5,847
• 5,093
• 4,208 million yen
U.S. - Escalators annual sales
• 194 • 2,029 • 243 • 2,082 • 296
• 149 • 2,350 • 157• 2,113
• 111• 2,084 • 139 • 2,335 • 159 • 2,406 • 163
ads.
• 2,577 • 409 • 460 • 2,962 • 504 • 3,354 • 567 • 3,741 • 587
• 2,382
• 2,230
• 8,468
• 482 • 471
• 398
• 307
• 236
TV ads.
• 1,879
Magazine
as culturally, historically malleable category VALS VALS-2 GeoVALS • 1,857
• 203
• 210
• 176
• 125 • 143
2,700 total number of escalators in the U.S.
escalator patent adjudged
wheelchair escalator waved escalator
1988
1996
1,404
1,327
escalator with horizontal midsection Mitsubishi
for the handicapped Mitsubishi
spiral escalator, 1985
escalator with curved plan Mitsubishi
2700 3,700
1,600
Otis redesign handrail extended
ac c
um
f es
cala tor s
wo rld w
Otis crisscross escalators Buffalo, N.Y.
ula tion o
1949
• 1949: escalator patent adjudged from Otis crisscross arangements for the Buffalo Departmemt store
• 1935: Japanese Mitsubishi escalator
• 1920: escalator redesigned for horizontal stepping on/off
• 1918: escalator profit formula for 5 & 10 Cents Stores, New York
• 1914: escalator in Mitsukoshi store, Japan
• 1911: escalator in the London underground
• Kobe Harborland Canal Garden
ide
• 1988: Odakyu Shinjuku Station
• 1985: Landmark Tower, Yokohama
can move the world's population in less than 4 days
• 1,727
Japan total
• 1,633
0.0
• 8,369
ads.
• 1,739
• 7,993
• 7,572
• 7,086
• 6,554
• 5,702
• 5,068
UK total
• 1,565
• 1,450
• 1,281
• 1,119
0.8 1960
• 1,612
0.4
• 951
0.6
• 1,501
0.2
aper
n
l TV tota
• 1,425
0.6
• 877
Adversary Groups™ Category Sculpting™ 0.4 Balloons™ Sensations™ emotional mining 0.2 Photosort™ Emotional¥1,916,200 Lexicon™ million PAT0.0 Pictured Aspiration Technique Emotional Bonding™ 1.2 Emotional Sonar™ Japa
• 1,330
0.8
wsp Ne
• 1,264
1.0
• 670 million yen • 4,092 million yen "in de Certeau "Practice of Everyday Life", 1984 • 4,550 • 797
1,600 total number of escalators in the U.S. • 1945:
Evolution of identity (☛ Psychogramming, 572–73) • 1945:
Schindler escalator
• 1900: Otis's first escalator at the Paris World Fair • 1901: escalators installed in Gimbel‘s, Philadelphia • 1901–3: escalators installed in Macy's, New York • 1902–3: patent adaptation for Luna Park at Coney Island • 1905: 8 escalators in a factory in Lawrence, Mass. • 1906: escalators installed in Bon Marché, Paris ;• 1906: Macy's counts customers on escalators and elevators
the world's escalators
Japan total Newspaper ads.
Target £3,333 Scan million £3,571 million Global Scan
N eo-liberalism: Thatcherism, Reagonomics
0.2
1950s / 1970s: organization man, affluent society (J.K. Galbraith)
1.0
Marcel Mauss
• 3,333
1896 "The Aetiology of Hysteria" by Freud
to move 7,000–8,000 people per hour,
• 12,379
1.0
with a single escalator able
• 3,571
0.8
160,000
1980
• 4,073
0.6
1960
Japan total Magazine ads
• 583
Psychoanalysis l tota
• 1,169
0.0
n Japa
• 1,061
0.2
Fashion shoppers typo Eating typology Shoppers typology by Murray Projection 1938 "Explorations in Personality" 0.0 1913 "Totem and Taboo" by Freud DuPont's Cohort study MONITOR JapanVALS 1.0 Thematic Apperception Test 0.8
identity Self 0.2
• 908
Projective Techniques
0.4
• 602 million yen
0.4
• 704 •1 • 811
TAT Rorschach Test Sentence Completion 0.6
• 344 • 2,181
0.6 Motivation Research
Dichter works on Ivory Soap 1958 "Typologies" by Dichter's Institute for Motivational Re Paul 1.0 Lazarsfeld at Columbia Pckard The0.4Hidden Persuaders 0.8
"identity" reached to generality.
0.6
1959 "Identity and the Lifecycle" by Erikson 0.2
• 4,208 million yen
0.8
• 4,092 million yen
1.0
• 670 million yen
0.0
1941
• 1892–96: stepless escalators installed in Bloomingdale's, New York • 1895–96: stepless escalators installed in Harrod's, London
1940
• 602 million yen
0.2
Dichter says "Most of us try to explain our • 78 behaviour in an intelligent way,when very often it is not." • 78 • 78 • 89 • 2 millions of pounds • 96 Ernest Dichter called Politz's traditional "process' vis a vis 'continuous' • 102 statistical research "nose-counting". • 107 • 57 • 120
1940
"name, artifact of interaction", Nelson Foote, Sociology, definition destinguished from Freud's; "appropriation of and commitment to 34 of identity". a particular identity or •series
1920
1938
Mitsubishi escalator
Otis redesign
1920
1906 M.Hocquardt European Fahrtreppe
the escalator enables the department store
"continuous, located in the deep" as selfconception, and as self-image.
cation
• 2 millions of pounds
0.4
Alfred Politz called "motivational research "pseudo science" and "pure unadulterated balderdash,".
1935
Seeberger experiments with spiral moving stairs under Otis
Otis’s patent
1906
combines Seeberger’s and Reno’s
Otis, Paris Expo 1900
U.S. patent George H.Wheeler
inclined elevator
1898 Wheeler’s patent sold to Charles D.Seeberger 1899 Seeberger partners with Otis
1892
1920
• 36
0.6
"same of a person or thing at all time"
0.8
• 31 millions of pounds
1.0
• 9 millions of pounds
1900 1903 Reno’s patent sold to Otis
1898 European patent M.Halle stepless escalator
Escalator prototype
U.S. patent Jesse W.Reno
stepless escalator
invention and evolution of the escalator
• 2 millions of pounds
1880
1900
• 31 millions of pounds
Diagram by HIROMI HOSOYA and MARKUS SCHAEFER • 1900: Otis‘s first escalator at the Paris World Fair
1892
• 1859: revolving stairs protoescalator U.S. patent
1880
• 9 millions of pounds
1860 1896 Reno’s inclined elevator Coney Island
U.S. patent Nathan Ames revolving stairs - protoescalator
1859
1860
• 2 millions of pounds
1840
"fingerprints", defined in Original Encyclopedia.
• 1880s: Branding has been used to since the earliest times distinguish the goods of one producer from those of another. Indeed, the word 'brnad' came from the Old Norse word 'brandr', which means to burn.
1840
1879 FROUDE Caesar vxiii. 298 "united .. by identity of conviction".
Sir William Congreve schemes for perpetuum mobile
installations of the escalator
1876 TAIT Rec. Adv. Phys. St. viii. (ed.2) 203 "The identity of radiant light and heat".
1820 1829
1800
1863 FAWCETT Pol. Econ. II. ix. 265 "There is no identity of interests between the employers and employed".
2000
1855 H. SPENCER Princ. Psychol. (1872) II. VI. vi. 59 "Resemblance when it exists in the highest degree of all .. is often called identity."
1839 MURCHISON Silur, Syst. I. xxxv. 474 "The organic remains are of great interest in establishing the geological identity between the coal measures of the Dudley district and those of distant parts of Great Britain.
Diagram by SRDJAN JOVANOVIC WEISS
Evolution of the escalator (☛ Escalator, 338–39) 2000
total number of escalators doubles every ten years
1200 / year 900 / year 600 / year
1500 / year
2000 zero-sum-game: In a context of growth consumption appears t strategy in a zero-sum-game. O contemporary positive evaluat consumption depends on the a open-ended economic expansio
single source dat
0.8 1933 "Psychological Types" by Jung
Living Cube ¥1,237,900 million
TV ads.
mass identity crisi
Advertising E Japan (television, new
¥407,300 million
0.0
Japan total Radio ads.
¥218,100 million
£344 million
£583 million
Postmodernism: " The shift fo post-Fordism, from organized to dis capitalism, from commodities and e to commodity-signs and sign-value been made possible by information which also allows for increasing pre segmentation targeting to consum are defined by lifestyle rather than
Advertising E U.K. (television, newsp
Narcissism: "Narcissism is the p heart of a consumer society in w boundaries between the privat public world - like the narcissist between the self and the other outside - are dangerously blurr
